Skip to content
how-nanophotonics-can-drive-optical-computing-toward-practical-applications-–-nature-nanotechnology

How nanophotonics can drive optical computing toward practical applications – Nature Nanotechnology

  • Guo, D. et al. DeepSeek-R1 incentivizes reasoning in LLMs through reinforcement learning. Nature 645, 633–638 (2025).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Xiao, C. et al. Densing law of LLMs. Nat. Mach. Intell. 7, 1823–1833 (2025).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gehrig, D. & Scaramuzza, D. Low-latency automotive vision with event cameras. Nature 629, 1034–1040 (2024).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Ates, H. C. et al. End-to-end design of wearable sensors. Nat. Rev. Mater. 7, 887–907 (2022).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Mehonic, A. & Kenyon, A. J. Brain-inspired computing needs a master plan. Nature 604, 255–260 (2022).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fu, T. et al. Optical neural networks: progress and challenges. Light Sci. Appl. 13, 263 (2024).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Zhou, H. et al. Photonic matrix multiplication lights up photonic accelerator and beyond. Light Sci. Appl. 11, 30 (2022). A review article on comprehensive implementation methods for optical matrix multiplication, including free-space and waveguide-based methods.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • He, C., Shen, Y. & Forbes, A. Towards higher-dimensional structured light. Light Sci. Appl. 11, 205 (2022).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zheng, Y.-W., Wang, D., Li, Y.-L., Li, N.-N. & Wang, Q.-H. Holographic near-eye display system with large viewing area based on liquid crystal axicon. Opt. Express 30, 34106–34116 (2022).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zhou, T., Jiang, Y., Xu, Z., Xue, Z. & Fang, L. Hundred-layer photonic deep learning. Nat. Commun. 16, 10382 (2025).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Yuan, X., Wang, Y., Xu, Z., Zhou, T. & Fang, L. Training large-scale optoelectronic neural networks with dual-neuron optical-artificial learning. Nat. Commun. 14, 7110 (2023).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, Y. et al. All-analog photoelectronic chip for high-speed vision tasks. Nature 623, 48–57 (2023). A paper on a chip-level demonstration of high system-level performance in optical computing with efficient photoelectronic interfaces and eliminating ADCs.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hua, S. et al. An integrated large-scale photonic accelerator with ultralow latency. Nature 640, 361–367 (2025). A paper on corporate-developed integrated photonic accelerator for ultralow-latency scientific computing with advanced packaging solutions.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Ahmed, S. R. et al. Universal photonic artificial intelligence acceleration. Nature 640, 368–374 (2025). A paper on a universal photonic processor for extensive AI workloads from commercial enterprises with near-electronic precision.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, Y. et al. All-optical synthesis chip for large-scale intelligent semantic vision generation. Science 390, 1259–1265 (2025). A paper on an all-optical chip for large-scale cutting-edge generative AI, such as high-resolution semantic generation, with millions of integrated optical neurons.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Inagaki, T. et al. Large-scale Ising spin network based on degenerate optical parametric oscillators. Nat. Photon. 10, 415–419 (2016).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kumar, S., Zhang, H. & Huang, Y.-P. Large-scale Ising emulation with four body interaction and all-to-all connections. Commun. Phys. 3, 108 (2020).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tong, L. et al. Programmable nonlinear optical neuromorphic computing with bare 2D material MoS2. Nat. Commun. 15, 10290 (2024).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Sozos, K. et al. High-speed photonic neuromorphic computing using recurrent optical spectrum slicing neural networks. Commun. Eng. 1, 24 (2022).

    Article  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kalinin, K. P. et al. Analog optical computer for AI inference and combinatorial optimization. Nature 645, 354–361 (2025).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Cheng, J. et al. Multimodal deep learning using on-chip diffractive optics with in situ training capability. Nat. Commun. 15, 6189 (2024).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Tan, M. et al. Photonic signal processor based on a Kerr microcomb for real-time video image processing. Commun. Eng. 2, 94 (2023).

    Article  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Yi, S. et al. 32-bit photonic processor beyond noise limitation based on parallelized bit-slicing. Opt. Express 33, 37257–37266 (2025).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bogaerts, W. et al. Programmable photonic circuits. Nature 586, 207–216 (2020).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Xu, Z. et al. Large-scale photonic chiplet Taichi empowers 160-TOPS/W artificial general intelligence. Science 384, 202–209 (2024).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ríos, C. et al. Integrated all-photonic non-volatile multi-level memory. Nat. Photon. 9, 725–732 (2015).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fang, Z. et al. Ultra-low-energy programmable non-volatile silicon photonics based on phase-change materials with graphene heaters. Nat. Nanotechnol. 17, 842–848 (2022).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, Y. et al. Electrical tuning of phase-change antennas and metasurfaces. Nat. Nanotechnol. 16, 667–672 (2021).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, Y. et al. Electrically reconfigurable non-volatile metasurface using low-loss optical phase-change material. Nat. Nanotechnol. 16, 661–666 (2021).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, Q. et al. Optically reconfigurable metasurfaces and photonic devices based on phase change materials. Nat. Photon. 10, 60–65 (2016).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Li, S.-Q. et al. Phase-only transmissive spatial light modulator based on tunable dielectric metasurface. Science 364, 1087–1090 (2019).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Khorasaninejad, M. et al. Metalenses at visible wavelengths: diffraction-limited focusing and subwavelength resolution imaging. Science 352, 1190–1194 (2016).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zetie, K. P., Adams, S. F. & Tocknell, R. M. How does a Mach–Zehnder interferometer work? Phys. Educ. 35, 46–48 (2000).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Xu, Q., Schmidt, B., Pradhan, S. & Lipson, M. Micrometre-scale silicon electro-optic modulator. Nature 435, 325–327 (2005).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tomko, J. A. et al. Long-lived modulation of plasmonic absorption by ballistic thermal injection. Nat. Nanotechnol. 16, 47–51 (2021).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Haffner, C. et al. Low-loss plasmon-assisted electro-optic modulator. Nature 556, 483–486 (2018).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Ayata, M. et al. High-speed plasmonic modulator in a single metal layer. Science 358, 630–632 (2017).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goodman, J. W., Dias, A. R. & Woody, L. M. Fully parallel, high-speed incoherent optical method for performing discrete Fourier transforms. Opt. Lett. 2, 1–3 (1978).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, T. et al. An optical neural network using less than 1 photon per multiplication. Nat. Commun. 13, 123 (2022).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Ma, S.-Y., Wang, T., Laydevant, J., Wright, L. G. & McMahon, P. L. Quantum-limited stochastic optical neural networks operating at a few quanta per activation. Nat. Commun. 16, 359 (2025).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Xu, S. et al. Optical coherent dot-product chip for sophisticated deep learning regression. Light Sci. Appl. 10, 221 (2021).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Shen, Y. et al. Deep learning with coherent nanophotonic circuits. Nat. Photon. 11, 441–446 (2017).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Clements, W. R., Humphreys, P. C., Metcalf, B. J., Kolthammer, W. S. & Walmsley, I. A. Optimal design for universal multiport interferometers. Optica 3, 1460–1465 (2016).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Feldmann, J. et al. Parallel convolutional processing using an integrated photonic tensor core. Nature 589, 52–58 (2021).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lin, X. et al. All-optical machine learning using diffractive deep neural networks. Science 361, 1004–1008 (2018).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kulce, O., Mengu, D., Rivenson, Y. & Ozcan, A. All-optical synthesis of an arbitrary linear transformation using diffractive surfaces. Light Sci. Appl. 10, 196 (2021).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kulce, O., Mengu, D., Rivenson, Y. & Ozcan, A. All-optical information-processing capacity of diffractive surfaces. Light Sci. Appl. 10, 25 (2021).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Fu, T. et al. Photonic machine learning with on-chip diffractive optics. Nat. Commun. 14, 70 (2023).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Bandyopadhyay, S. et al. Single-chip photonic deep neural network with forward-only training. Nat. Photon. 18, 1335–1343 (2024).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pai, S. et al. Experimentally realized in situ backpropagation for deep learning in photonic neural networks. Science 380, 398–404 (2023).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Khoram, E. et al. Nanophotonic media for artificial neural inference. Photon. Res. 7, 823–827 (2019).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wu, T., Menarini, M., Gao, Z. & Feng, L. Lithography-free reconfigurable integrated photonic processor. Nat. Photon. 17, 710–716 (2023).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nikkhah, V. et al. Inverse-designed low-index-contrast structures on a silicon photonics platform for vector–matrix multiplication. Nat. Photon. 18, 501–508 (2024).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chang, J., Sitzmann, V., Dun, X., Heidrich, W. & Wetzstein, G. Hybrid optical-electronic convolutional neural networks with optimized diffractive optics for image classification. Sci. Rep. 8, 12324 (2018).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Yan, T. et al. Fourier-space diffractive deep neural network. Phys. Rev. Lett. 123, 023901 (2019).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zhu, H. H. et al. Space-efficient optical computing with an integrated chip diffractive neural network. Nat. Commun. 13, 1044 (2022).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Yang, H. et al. Near-energy-free photonic Fourier transformation for convolution operation acceleration. Adv. Photon. 7, 056007 (2025).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sadeghzadeh, H. & Koohi, S. Translation-invariant optical neural network for image classification. Sci. Rep. 12, 17232 (2022).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Shi, W. et al. LOEN: lensless opto-electronic neural network empowered machine vision. Light Sci. Appl. 11, 121 (2022).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Song, A., Murty Kottapalli, S. N., Goyal, R., Schölkopf, B. & Fischer, P. Low-power scalable multilayer optoelectronic neural networks enabled with incoherent light. Nat. Commun. 15, 10692 (2024).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Zheludev, N. I. & Kivshar, Y. S. From metamaterials to metadevices. Nat. Mater. 11, 917–924 (2012).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, Q., Yang, L. T., Chen, Z. & Li, P. A survey on deep learning for big data. Inf. Fusion 42, 146–157 (2018).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meng, X. et al. High-integrated photonic tensor core utilizing high-dimensional lightwave and microwave multidomain multiplexing. Light Sci. Appl. 14, 27 (2025).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Xu, X. et al. 11 TOPS photonic convolutional accelerator for optical neural networks. Nature 589, 44–51 (2021).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kildishev, A. V., Boltasseva, A. & Shalaev, V. M. Planar photonics with metasurfaces. Science 339, 1232009 (2013).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shen, C.-Y. et al. Broadband unidirectional visible imaging using wafer-scale nano-fabrication of multi-layer diffractive optical processors. Light Sci. Appl. 14, 267 (2025).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Bai, B. et al. All-optical image classification through unknown random diffusers using a single-pixel diffractive network. Light Sci. Appl. 12, 69 (2023).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, Y. et al. Photonic unsupervised learning variational autoencoder for high-throughput and low-latency image transmission. Sci. Adv. 9, eadf8437 (2023).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Song, M. et al. Single image dehazing algorithm based on optical diffraction deep neural networks. Opt. Express 30, 24394–24406 (2022).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Işıl, Ç et al. All-optical image denoising using a diffractive visual processor. Light Sci. Appl. 13, 43 (2024).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Luo, X. et al. Metasurface-enabled on-chip multiplexed diffractive neural networks in the visible. Light Sci. Appl. 11, 158 (2022).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Li, J., Hung, Y.-C., Kulce, O., Mengu, D. & Ozcan, A. Polarization multiplexed diffractive computing: all-optical implementation of a group of linear transformations through a polarization-encoded diffractive network. Light Sci. Appl. 11, 153 (2022).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Zheng, H. et al. Multichannel meta-imagers for accelerating machine vision. Nat. Nanotechnol. 19, 471–478 (2024).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Devlin, R. C., Ambrosio, A., Rubin, N. A., Mueller, J. P. B. & Capasso, F. Arbitrary spin-to-orbital angular momentum conversion of light. Science 358, 896–901 (2017).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Liu, M. et al. Multifunctional metasurfaces enabled by simultaneous and independent control of phase and amplitude for orthogonal polarization states. Light Sci. Appl. 10, 107 (2021).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Yu, X. et al. Parallel optical computing capable of 100-wavelength multiplexing. eLight 5, 10 (2025).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cheng, Y. et al. Photonic neuromorphic architecture for tens-of-task lifelong learning. Light Sci. Appl. 13, 56 (2024).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Duan, Z., Chen, H. & Lin, X. Optical multi-task learning using multi-wavelength diffractive deep neural networks. Nanophotonics 12, 893–903 (2023).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Zhou, T. et al. Large-scale neuromorphic optoelectronic computing with a reconfigurable diffractive processing unit. Nat. Photon. 15, 367–373 (2021).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Liu, C. et al. A programmable diffractive deep neural network based on a digital-coding metasurface array. Nat. Electron. 5, 113–122 (2022).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gao, X. et al. Programmable surface plasmonic neural networks for microwave detection and processing. Nat. Electron. 6, 319–328 (2023).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Guo, X. et al. Efficient all-optical plasmonic modulators with atomically thin van der Waals heterostructures. Adv. Mater. 32, 1907105 (2020).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cai, H. et al. All-optical and ultrafast tuning of terahertz plasmonic metasurfaces. Adv. Opt. Mater. 6, 1800143 (2018).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Xu, M. et al. High-performance coherent optical modulators based on thin-film lithium niobate platform. Nat. Commun. 11, 3911 (2020).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, X., Weigel, P. O., Zhao, J., Ruesing, M. & Mookherjea, S. Achieving beyond-100-GHz large-signal modulation bandwidth in hybrid silicon photonics Mach Zehnder modulators using thin film lithium niobate. APL Photon. 4, 096101 (2019).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shi, Y. et al. Nonlinear germanium-silicon photodiode for activation and monitoring in photonic neuromorphic networks. Nat. Commun. 13, 6048 (2022).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, C. et al. Monolithic lithium niobate photonic circuits for Kerr frequency comb generation and modulation. Nat. Commun. 10, 978 (2019).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Xie, W. et al. Ultrahigh-Q AlGaAs-on-insulator microresonators for integrated nonlinear photonics. Opt. Express 28, 32894–32906 (2020).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kim, S. et al. Dispersion engineering and frequency comb generation in thin silicon nitride concentric microresonators. Nat. Commun. 8, 372 (2017).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Säynätjoki, A. et al. Ultra-strong nonlinear optical processes and trigonal warping in MoS2 layers. Nat. Commun. 8, 893 (2017).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kumar, V. Linear and nonlinear optical properties of graphene: a review. J. Electron. Mater. 50, 3773–3799 (2021).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Du, J. et al. Phosphorene quantum dot saturable absorbers for ultrafast fiber lasers. Sci. Rep. 7, 42357 (2017).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Yanagimoto, R. et al. Programmable on-chip nonlinear photonics. Nature 649, 330–337 (2025).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, C. et al. Ultra-broadband all-optical nonlinear activation function enabled by MoTe2/optical waveguide integrated devices. Nat. Commun. 15, 9047 (2024).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Yan, T. et al. A complete photonic integrated neuron for nonlinear all-optical computing. Nat. Comput. Sci. 5, 1202–1213 (2025).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wu, B. et al. Scaling up for end-to-end on-chip photonic neural network inference. Light Sci. Appl. 14, 328 (2025).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Xia, F. et al. Nonlinear optical encoding enabled by recurrent linear scattering. Nat. Photon. 18, 1067–1075 (2024).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Li, Y., Li, J. & Ozcan, A. Nonlinear encoding in diffractive information processing using linear optical materials. Light Sci. Appl. 13, 173 (2024).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Shi, W., Cao, J., Zhang, Q., Li, Y. & Xu, L. Edge computing: vision and challenges. IEEE Internet Things J. 3, 637–646 (2016).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, S. et al. Photonic edge intelligence chip for multi-modal sensing, inference and learning. Nat. Commun. 16, 10136 (2025).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Huang, Z. et al. Pre-sensor computing with compact multilayer optical neural network. Sci. Adv. 10, eado8516 (2024).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Sludds, A. et al. Delocalized photonic deep learning on the internet’s edge. Science 378, 270–276 (2022).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gan, Z., Cao, Y., Evans, R. A. & Gu, M. Three-dimensional deep sub-diffraction optical beam lithography with 9-nm feature size. Nat. Commun. 4, 2061 (2013).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goi, E. et al. Nanoprinted high-neuron-density optical linear perceptrons performing near-infrared inference on a CMOS chip. Light Sci. Appl. 10, 40 (2021).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Yu, H. et al. All-optical image transportation through a multimode fibre using a miniaturized diffractive neural network on the distal facet. Nat. Photon. 19, 486–493 (2025).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Choi, M. et al. Transferable polychromatic optical encoder for neural networks. Nat. Commun. 16, 5623 (2025).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Wei, K. et al. Spatially varying nanophotonic neural networks. Sci. Adv. 10, eadp0391 (2024).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Yan, T. et al. Nanowatt all-optical 3D perception for mobile robotics. Sci. Adv. 10, eadn2031 (2024).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Dong, Y., Bai, Y., Zhang, Q., Luan, H. & Gu, M. High-throughput optical neuromorphic graphic processing at millions of images per second. eLight 5, 29 (2025).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gu, M., Dong, Y., Yu, H., Luan, H. & Zhang, Q. Perspective on 3D vertically-integrated photonic neural networks based on VCSEL arrays. Nanophotonics 12, 827–832 (2023).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Liao, K. et al. Hetero-integrated perovskite/Si3N4 on-chip photonic system. Nat. Photon. 19, 358–368 (2025).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bie, Y.-Q. et al. A MoTe2-based light-emitting diode and photodetector for silicon photonic integrated circuits. Nat. Nanotechnol. 12, 1124–1129 (2017).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Qian, F. et al. Multi-quantum-well nanowire heterostructures for wavelength-controlled lasers. Nat. Mater. 7, 701–706 (2008).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Qi, L., Li, P., Zhang, X., Wong, K. M. & Lau, K. M. Monolithic full-color active-matrix micro-LED micro-display using InGaN/AlGaInP heterogeneous integration. Light Sci. Appl. 12, 258 (2023).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Pan, G. et al. Harnessing the capabilities of VCSELs: unlocking the potential for advanced integrated photonic devices and systems. Light Sci. Appl. 13, 229 (2024).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, Z. et al. Deep learning with coherent VCSEL neural networks. Nat. Photon. 17, 723–730 (2023).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Flöry, N. et al. Waveguide-integrated van der Waals heterostructure photodetector at telecom wavelengths with high speed and high responsivity. Nat. Nanotechnol. 15, 118–124 (2020).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kim, B. et al. Ultrahigh-gain colloidal quantum dot infrared avalanche photodetectors. Nat. Nanotechnol. 20, 237–245 (2025).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Liu, W. et al. Graphene charge-injection photodetectors. Nat. Electron. 5, 281–288 (2022).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, F. et al. Multidimensional detection enabled by twisted black arsenic–phosphorus homojunctions. Nat. Nanotechnol. 19, 455–462 (2024).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Koepfli, S. M. et al. Controlling photothermoelectric directional photocurrents in graphene with over 400-GHz bandwidth. Nat. Commun. 15, 7351 (2024).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Jiao, S. et al. All-optical logic gate computing for high-speed parallel information processing. Opto-Electron. Sci. 1, 220010 (2022).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Inagaki, T. et al. A coherent Ising machine for 2000-node optimization problems. Science 354, 603–606 (2016).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Estakhri, N. M., Edwards, B. & Engheta, N. Inverse-designed metastructures that solve equations. Science 363, 1333–1338 (2019).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, W. et al. Photonic logic tensor computing beyond Tbit/s per core. Optica 12, 1252–1260 (2025).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Huang, Y., Shi, M., Yu, A. & Xia, L. Design of multifunctional all-optical logic gates based on photonic crystal waveguides. Appl. Opt. 62, 774–781 (2023).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cheng, Z. et al. Device-level photonic memories and logic applications using phase-change materials. Adv. Mater. 30, 1802435 (2018).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Okawachi, Y. et al. Demonstration of chip-based coupled degenerate optical parametric oscillators for realizing a nanophotonic spin-glass. Nat. Commun. 11, 4119 (2020).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Wu, B. et al. A monolithically integrated optical Ising machine. Nat. Commun. 16, 4296 (2025).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Honjo, T. et al. 100,000-spin coherent Ising machine. Sci. Adv. 7, eabh0952 (2021).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Pierangeli, D., Marcucci, G. & Conti, C. Large-scale photonic Ising machine by spatial light modulation. Phys. Rev. Lett. 122, 213902 (2019).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fang, Y., Huang, J. & Ruan, Z. Experimental observation of phase transitions in spatial photonic Ising machine. Phys. Rev. Lett. 127, 043902 (2021).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goodman, J. W. Introduction to Fourier Optics 3rd edn (Roberts & Co., 2005).

  • Silva, A. et al. Performing mathematical operations with metamaterials. Science 343, 160–163 (2014).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zhou, C., Wang, Y. & Huang, L. All-optical analog differential operation and information processing empowered by meta-devices. Nanophotonics 14, 1021–1044 (2025).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Cordaro, A. et al. Solving integral equations in free space with inverse-designed ultrathin optical metagratings. Nat. Nanotechnol. 18, 365–372 (2023).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tan, S. et al. All-optical computation system for solving differential equations based on optical intensity differentiator. Opt. Express 21, 7008–7013 (2013).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tan, S. et al. High-order all-optical differential equation solver based on microring resonators. Opt. Lett. 38, 3735–3738 (2013).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tang, Y. et al. Optical neural engine for solving scientific partial differential equations. Nat. Commun. 16, 4603 (2025).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Yuan, H. et al. Microcomb-driven photonic chip for solving partial differential equations. Adv. Photon. 7, 016007 (2025).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dong, P. et al. Low loss shallow-ridge silicon waveguides. Opt. Express 18, 14474–14479 (2010).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, H., Chen, T., Li, J., Painter, O. & Vahala, K. J. Ultra-low-loss optical delay line on a silicon chip. Nat. Commun. 3, 867 (2012).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Liu, J. et al. High-yield, wafer-scale fabrication of ultralow-loss, dispersion-engineered silicon nitride photonic circuits. Nat. Commun. 12, 2236 (2021).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Lomonte, E. et al. Single-photon detection and cryogenic reconfigurability in lithium niobate nanophotonic circuits. Nat. Commun. 12, 6847 (2021).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Li, Z. et al. High density lithium niobate photonic integrated circuits. Nat. Commun. 14, 4856 (2023).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Zhou, W. et al. In-memory photonic dot-product engine with electrically programmable weight banks. Nat. Commun. 14, 2887 (2023).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Zhou, T., Wu, W., Zhang, J., Yu, S. & Fang, L. Ultrafast dynamic machine vision with spatiotemporal photonic computing. Sci. Adv. 9, eadg4391 (2023).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Ashtiani, F. Programmable photonic latch memory. Opt. Express 33, 3501–3510 (2025).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Alexoudi, T., Kanellos, G. T. & Pleros, N. Optical RAM and integrated optical memories: a survey. Light Sci. Appl. 9, 91 (2020).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Feldmann, J. et al. Calculating with light using a chip-scale all-optical abacus. Nat. Commun. 8, 1256 (2017).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Wuttig, M., Bhaskaran, H. & Taubner, T. Phase-change materials for non-volatile photonic applications. Nat. Photon. 11, 465–476 (2017).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, R. et al. Non-volatile electrically programmable integrated photonics with a 5-bit operation. Nat. Commun. 14, 3465 (2023).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, R. et al. Opportunities and challenges for large-scale phase-change material integrated electro-photonics. ACS Photon. 9, 3181–3195 (2022).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, S., Li, Y., Wang, Y., Chen, H. & Ozcan, A. Optical generative models. Nature 644, 903–911 (2025).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Siew, S. Y. et al. Review of silicon photonics technology and platform development. J. Light. Technol. 39, 4374–4389 (2021).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nezami, M. S. et al. Packaging and interconnect considerations in neuromorphic photonic accelerators. IEEE J. Sel. Top. Quantum Electron. 29, 1–11 (2023).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Popoff, S. M. et al. A practical guide to digital micro-mirror devices (DMDs) for wavefront shaping. J. Phys. Photon. 8, 023002 (2026).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pivnenko, M., Li, K. & Chu, D. Sub-millisecond switching of multi-level liquid crystal on silicon spatial light modulators for increased information bandwidth. Opt. Express 29, 24614–24628 (2021).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Luo, S., Wang, Y., Tong, X. & Wang, Z. Graphene-based optical modulators. Nanoscale Res. Lett. 10, 199 (2015).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Pérez-López, D. & Torrijos-Morán, L. Large-scale photonic processors and their applications. Npj Nanophoton 2, 32 (2025).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Giannopoulos, I., Mochi, I., Vockenhuber, M., Ekinci, Y. & Kazazis, D. Extreme ultraviolet lithography reaches 5 nm resolution. Nanoscale 16, 15533–15543 (2024).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sreenivasan, S. V. Nanoimprint lithography steppers for volume fabrication of leading-edge semiconductor integrated circuits. Microsyst. Nanoeng. 3, 17075 (2017).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Jia, L. et al. Fabrication technologies for the on-chip integration of 2D materials. Small Methods 6, 2101435 (2022).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Adya, U. et al. Post-processing of phase change material in a zero-change commercial silicon photonic process. Opt. Express 32, 27552–27562 (2024).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yang, A. et al. Qwen2 Technical Report. Preprint at https://arxiv.org/abs/2407.10671 (2024).

  • Dosovitskiy, A. et al. An image is worth 16 × 16 words: transformers for image recognition at scale. In Proc. International Conference on Learning Representations https://go.nature.com/4y4eiTL (ICLR, 2021).

  • De Marinis, L., Liboiron-Ladouceur, O. & Andriolli, N. Characterization and ENOB analysis of a reconfigurable linear optical processor. In Proc. OSA Advanced Photonics Congress (AP) 2020 (eds Caspani, L., Tauke-Pedretti, A., Leo, F. & Yang, B.) https://doi.org/10.1364/PSC.2020.PsW1F.4 (Optica Publishing Group, 2020).

  • Lightmatter. Envise. https://lightmatter.co/blog/a-new-kind-of-computer/ (2025).

  • Neurophos. White paper Neurophos. https://11549dc2-0dc9-4363-9a47-d257d2a497cc.filesusr.com/ugd/79aa3c_85cd1a5477d44f4fa0e423c03ad0746c.pdf?index=true (2025).

  • Lightstandard. Product. https://www.lightstandard.co/gsxw/93.html (2026).

  • Lightelligence. PACE2. https://lightelligence.ai/index.php/product/PACE2.html (2026).

  • Neurophos. TULKAS. https://www.neurophos.com/product (2026).

  • Lightelligence. Lightelligence. https://www.lightelligence.ai/ (2026).

  • Chen, L. et al. End-to-end autonomous driving: challenges and frontiers. IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell. 46, 10164–10183 (2024).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Liu, H., Guo, D. & Cangelosi, A. Embodied intelligence: a synergy of morphology, action, perception and learning. ACM Comput. Surv. 57, 186 (2025).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bartolozzi, C., Indiveri, G. & Donati, E. Embodied neuromorphic intelligence. Nat. Commun. 13, 1024 (2022).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Perez, E. F. et al. High-performance Kerr microresonator optical parametric oscillator on a silicon chip. Nat. Commun. 14, 242 (2023).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Li, Z. et al. A sub-wavelength Si LED integrated in a CMOS platform. Nat. Commun. 14, 882 (2023).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hu, Y. et al. Artificial intelligence in nanophotonics: from design to optical computing. Chin. Phys. Lett. 42, 080802 (2025).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Molesky, S. et al. Inverse design in nanophotonics. Nat. Photon. 12, 659–670 (2018).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ma, W. et al. Deep learning for the design of photonic structures. Nat. Photon. 15, 77–90 (2021).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Reinhart, W. F. & Statt, A. Large language models design sequence-defined macromolecules via evolutionary optimization. NPJ Comput. Mater. 10, 262 (2024).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Momeni, A. et al. Training of physical neural networks. Nature 645, 53–61 (2025). A review paper on training strategies for physical neural networks, including backpropagation-based and backpropagation-free approaches.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bai, B. et al. Microcomb-based integrated photonic processing unit. Nat. Commun. 14, 66 (2023).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, H. et al. Diffractive deep neural networks: theories, optimization and applications. Appl. Phys. Rev. 11, 021332 (2024).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Churaev, M. et al. A heterogeneously integrated lithium niobate-on-silicon nitride photonic platform. Nat. Commun. 14, 3499 (2023).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Mackin, C. et al. Optimised weight programming for analogue memory-based deep neural networks. Nat. Commun. 13, 3765 (2022).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Xu, X. et al. Scaling for edge inference of deep neural networks. Nat. Electron. 1, 216–222 (2018).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, Z., Wan, T., Ma, S. & Chai, Y. Multidimensional vision sensors for information processing. Nat. Nanotechnol. 19, 919–930 (2024).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pérez-López, D., López, A., DasMahapatra, P. & Capmany, J. Multipurpose self-configuration of programmable photonic circuits. Nat. Commun. 11, 6359 (2020).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Lin, H.-C., Wang, Z. & Hsu, C. W. Fast multi-source nanophotonic simulations using augmented partial factorization. Nat. Comput. Sci. 2, 815–822 (2022).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • NVIDIA Corporation. NVIDIA DGX B300. https://www.nvidia.com/en-us/data-center/hgx/ (2026).

  • NVIDIA Corporation. NVIDIA GeForce RTX 5090. https://images.nvidia.com/aem-dam/Solutions/geforce/blackwell/nvidia-rtx-blackwell-gpu-architecture.pdf (2026).

  • NVIDIA Corporation. NVIDIA Jetson Xavier. https://info.nvidia.com/rs/156-OFN-742/images/Jetson_AGX_Xavier_New_Era_Autonomous_Machines.pdf (2026).

  • Lightmatter. l200. https://lightmatter.co/products/l200/ (2026).

  • Lightmatter. Passage-M1000-EVK. https://lightmatter.co/products/passage-m1000-evk/ (2026).

  • Lightelligence. PACE. https://lightelligence.ai/index.php/product/pace-photonic-arithmetic-computing-engine-ai.html (2026).

  • LightOn. LightOn. https://hc33.hotchips.org/assets/program/posters/HotChips_LigthOn_Aug2021.pdf (2021).

  • colind88

    Back To Top